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Ancient Romans
at the table

Food and Culinary Habits in Ancient Rome

The daily life of ancient Rome is deeply reflected in the eating habits of its inhabitants, revealing a world of contrasts between sobriety and opulence. From the humble morning breakfast consumed hastily by the less wealthy, to the sumptuous afternoon banquets of the patricians, every meal reflected not only taste but also the social and cultural structure of an era. A fascinating and complex picture emerges, demonstrating the evolution of culinary practices influenced by conquests and trade with distant lands. In this article, we will explore the foods consumed by various social classes and the gastronomic innovations introduced through the centuries, shedding light on how the Romans integrated new ingredients from all over the known world into their diet. Through the recipes and traditions handed down to us, we will discover the rich and varied culinary landscape of one of the most influential civilizations in history.

painting in Pompeii

Ancient Romans at the table

Feasts, Places, and Traditions

butcher in Ancient Rome

A day in ancient Rome

Early in the morning, the Roman consumes one of the two main meals of the day: a hearty breakfast consisting of bread, cheese, fruit, and meat. Often, it is the leftovers from the previous night's dinner that guests at a banquet can take home in a basket. After completing the first activities of the day, they dedicate themselves to prandium, a light and quick mid-morning snack. However, the real culinary event of the day takes place in the afternoon when the wealthy Roman, after the usual bath at the terme, sits down to a table around three or four in the afternoon until sunset. The courses are numerous, even up to six, each with a variety of dishes. After the appetizer, called gustatio, come the main course of meat and fish, concluding with secundae mensae, desserts. The evening continues with the symposium, where they drink wine - always diluted - accompanied by some snacks like leeks, which stimulate the appetite.
Pompeian painting

Table etiquettes and placement

A series of etiquette rules govern the dinner, including the seating arrangement at the table. In the triclinium (dining room), the host arranges the triclinium beds, on which guests recline in groups of two or three, propped up by their left arm. This allows them to use their right hand to grab food from the low tables in front of them. The place of honor, called the "consular" seat, is at the far right of the central bed, so named because a messenger entering from the opposite door can easily communicate with the guest reclining there. The host sits immediately to the left of the guest of honor. In wealthier homes, there are multiple dining rooms used depending on the season and orientation: summer triclinia, often with fountains and water features, are located in the north, while winter ones face west to catch the last rays of the day's sun.
Pompeian painting

Evolution of Roman cuisine

During the archaic and republican era, Roman food was simple and based on legumes, cereals, cheese, and fruit. With the conquest of the East, new ingredients from all provinces arrived on the tables of the rich. Alongside the daily bread, puls (a kind of seasoned polenta), legumes such as lupines, lentils, chickpeas, and especially broad beans, as well as lettuce, cabbage, leek, figs, apples, and pears, they started to consume imported and expensive food from distant places, such as cherries, imported from the East by Lucullus. Obviously, poor Romans did not have access to expensive imported food and continued to consume frugal and economical meals. Wealthy Romans, as sources pass on, frequently organized banquets attended by friends and clients. Here, food is varied, cooked with great care and highly elaborate, as described in the recipes of the chef Apicius. Duck, pigeon, and partridge eggs and fish, both fresh and in brine, are highly appreciated. Among the most famous sauces of antiquity is garum, similar to some modern oriental sauces based on salted and fermented fish. Even more widespread is olive oil, mainly imported from Baetica (today's Andalusia) and North Africa, whose transport amphorae formed Monte Testaccio in Rome.
Pompeian mosaic

Flavor Combinations

Beef is not commonly found in Roman cuisine, while mutton and goat are more prevalent, and pork is highly appreciated in all its parts. The consumption of sausages is enormous, and poultry and game meat, such as wild boar, deer, and roe deer, are widespread, intensively produced in rural farms or hunted. One of the fundamental characteristics of Roman cuisine is the juxtaposition of opposite flavors: spicy with sweet, sweet with aromatic. Many of the recipes handed down to us may now seem unappetizing, such as boiled pears with honey, dessert wine, fish sauce, oil, and eggs, or dishes based on cranes, flamingos, parrots, and peacocks, which adorned the most refined tables.

Ancient Romans at the table

The recipes of Apicius

De re coquinaria

Marco Gavio Apicio, who lived between the 1st century BC and the 1st century AD, is one of the most well-known gastronomes of ancient Rome. A member of the Roman elite, he was not only known for his culinary skills but also for his extravagant lifestyle. His name is associated with “De re coquinaria”, a collection of recipes that offers a fascinating glimpse into Roman cuisine and food culture. Divided into ten books, it covers a wide range of dishes, from appetizers to desserts, from meat dishes to fish dishes, including side dishes and condiments.

The ingredients used in Apicius’s recipes are varied and often unusual by modern taste. Some of the most common are:

Garum: a fermented fish sauce that was very popular in Roman cuisine, used as a condiment for a wide range of dishes.

Exotic spices: such as pepper, ginger, and cumin, which demonstrate the influence of the commercial routes that crossed the empire.

Fine meats: including wild boar, peacock, and flamingo, which were considered delicacies.

Apicius’s culinary techniques are often complex and reflect a profound knowledge of the culinary arts. Some examples include:

Slow cooking: many recipes require long, slow cooking over low heat to soften meats and allow flavors to blend.

Marinating: the use of marinades to flavor and tenderize meat is a common practice.

Use of honey: as a natural sweetener, honey is frequently used not only in desserts but also in savory dishes.

One of the most famous recipes is the “Patina Apiciana”, a dish made with meat, often pork or poultry, cooked with honey, wine, and spices. This dish exemplifies the typical Roman use of combining sweet and salty flavors.

Apicius’s recipes represent an invaluable culinary heritage, offering a glimpse into the life and food habits of ancient Rome. Through their analysis, we can better understand the evolution of Western cuisine and appreciate the lasting influence of Roman traditions on our gastronomic culture. The elaborate preparations and exotic ingredients used by Apicius testify to an era in which food was not only nourishment but also an expression of wealth and culture.

Ancient Romans at the table

Trimalchio's
Banquet

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